1 The UrbanShift project

1.1 Objectives

UrbanShift is a global program that supports cities to adopt integrated approaches to urban development, shaping low-carbon, climate-resilient communities where people and planet both can thrive. The program is funded by the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and jointly managed by a global team consisting of the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), World Resources Institute (WRI), C40 Cities and ICLEI Local Governments for Sustainability. The initiative supports 23 cities across nine countries, providing the knowledge, tools and training they need to transform their urban fabric and shift towards a more sustainable, equitable future.

As one of the key activities to support development of a knowledge-base for the UrbanShift initiative and all participant cities, the WRI data team will work with UrbanShift cities to identify and provide all cities with a common set of critical spatial data layers. using open source, global data. World Resources Institute is providing several types of data-related assistance to participating cities:

  • A suite of key geo-spatial layers
  • Baseline measurements of core UrbanShift indicators
  • Geo-spatial analysis on selected thematic areas
  • Capacity building and technical assistance on data governance and geospatial data as part of the City Academy and Labs modules of UrbanShift.

Outputs will include datasets, indicators and replicable analysis methods relevant to all cities. Additionally, analyses customized to the specific themes of interest for each city will be provided. Finally, an UrbanShift Lab will be delivered for which these data and analyses may act as one input.

1.2 Baseline indicators

To help understand the current status and identify changes of sustainability in UrbanShift cities, we aim to measure key baseline indicators for all cities using comparable approaches. The selected indicators focus on measuring the status and change on the core objectives of the global project, which are aligned with three of Global Environment Facility’s focal areas for its current investment cycle (GEF-7):land degradation, biodiversity, and greenhouse gas emissions.

These assessments are intended to provide information to evaluate patterns within and between cities and to provide contextual information to cities to help them with problem and solution definition. We will disseminate the results to help local governments, the global project team, implementing agencies and national governments to gain a better understanding of the cities’ current status as it relates to sustainability efforts, capacities, main needs and opportunities, and planned investments.

2 Biodiversity

2.1 The Singapore Index on cities’ Biodiversity

The Singapore Index on Cities’ Biodiversity, also known as the Singapore Index or the City Biodiversity Index, is a comprehensive assessment framework for urban biodiversity. It was developed in 2008 by the Singapore National Parks Department in partnership with ICLEI and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), a UN body. It has been used by cities around the world to assess and monitor biodiversity efforts. Its 2021 version has been published by the CBD and will be used to support cities implementing the Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework.

The Singapore Index framework is constituted of two parts:

  • The profile of the City: It provides background information on the city: location, size, population, economic parameters, physical features, biodiversity features, administration….
  • Biodiversity indicators: It includes 28 indicators that measure native biodiversity, ecosystem services and management of biodiversity in the city. Each indicator is assigned a scoring range between zero and four points.

The complete methodology for computing Singapore Biodiversity Index is provide in this publication.

2.2 UrbanShift Biodiversity indicators

Indicator name Definition Data sources
I-1. Proportion of natural areas (Total area of natural, restored and naturalised areas) ÷ (Area of city) × 100% ESA WorldCover (natural areas as all values except crop, built-up, bare)
I-2. Connectivity measures or ecological networks to counter fragmentation ESA WorldCover (natural areas as all values except crop, built-up, bare)
I-3. Native biodiversity in built-up areas (birds) (Number of native bird species found in built-up areas) ÷ (Total number of native bird species in the city) × 100% ESA WorldCover, iNaturalist 2020 research-grade observations
I-3. Native biodiversity in built-up areas (birds) (Number of native bird species found in built-up areas) ÷ (Total number of native bird species in the city) × 100% ESA WorldCover, iNaturalist 2020 research-grade observations
I-4. Change in number of native species (vascular plants) Total increase in number of vascular plant species (as a result of re-introduction, rediscovery, new species found due to more intensive and comprehensive surveys, etc.) iNaturalist 2020 research-grade observations
I-5. Change in number of native species (birds) Total increase in number of native bird species (as a result of re-introduction, rediscovery, new species found due to more intensive and comprehensive surveys, etc.) iNaturalist 2020 research-grade observations
I-6. Change in number of native species (arthropods) Total increase in number of native arthropod species (as a result of re-introduction, rediscovery, new species found due to more intensive and comprehensive surveys, etc.) iNaturalist 2020 research-grade observations
I-7. Habitat restoration (Area of habitat restored) ÷ (Area of original habitat that is degraded) × 100%
I-8. Proportion of protected natural areas (Area of protected or secured natural areas) ÷ (Total area of the city) × 100% World Database of Protected Areas
I-9. Proportion of invasive alien species To ensure that the comparison of invasive alien specie with that of native species is meaningful, it would have to be a comparison of identical taxonomic groups.(Number of invasive alien species in a taxonomic group) ÷ (Total number of native species of the same taxonomic group + number of invasive alien species) × 100% Global Invasive Species Database
I-10. Regulation of quantity of water (Total permeable area) ÷ (Total terrestrial area of the city) × 100% GAIA 2018 30m impervious area
I-11. Climate regulation: carbon storage and cooling effect of vegetation (Tree canopy cover) ÷ (Total terrestrial area of the city) × 100%
I-12. Recreational services (Area of parks, nature conservation areas and other green spaces with natural areas and protected or secured accessible natural areas) /1000 persons OpenStreetMap, WorldPop
I-13 Proximity to parks (Population of city living within 400m from a park/green space) ÷ (Total population of city) × 100% OpenStreetMap, WorldPop

2.3 Data sources

  • Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF): The Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) is an international network and data infrastructure funded by the world’s governments and aimed at providing anyone, anywhere, open access to data about all types of life on Earth.

  • The World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA): The World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA) is the most comprehensive global database of marine and terrestrial protected areas. It is a joint project between UN Environment Programme and the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), and is managed by UN Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC), in collaboration with governments, non-governmental organisations, academia and industry.

  • ESA World Cover: The European Space Agency (ESA) WorldCover 10 m 2020 product provides a global land cover map for 2020 at 10 m resolution based on Sentinel-1 and Sentinel-2 data. The WorldCover product comes with 11 land cover classes, aligned with UN-FAO’s Land Cover Classification System, and has been generated in the framework of the ESA WorldCover project.

  • OpenStreetMap amenities (OSM): OpenStreetMap provides a global open database with the locations and attributes of physical assets and amenities reported by OSM volunteers all around the world. These data sets are used by extracting the locations of parks and green spaces amenities within the selected cities to compute population proximity to these assets as part of health and wellbeing related biodiversity indicators.

  • WorldPop: WorldPop provides a global open and high-resolution geospatial data on population distributions, demographic and dynamics, with a focus on low and middle income countries. We used the the population count data providing estimation of residential population per 100*100m grid from 2000 to 2021. This data is used for computing population proximity to green spaces and recreational services as part of health and wellbeing related biodiversity indicators.

  • The IUCN Red list of threatened species: Established in 1964, the International Union for Conservation of Nature’s Red List of Threatened Specie is most comprehensive information source on the global extinction risk status of animal, fungus and plant species. It provides information about range, population size, habitat and ecology, use and/or trade, threats, and conservation actions that will help inform necessary conservation decisions. We used the 2021-03 version of IUCN Red list data by computing the number of threatened species reported within the cities as part of the indicators related to the change in number of native species.

3 Case study: San Jose

3.1 Data sources exploration

3.1.1 ESA World Cover

The European Space Agency (ESA) WorldCover 10 m 2020 product provides a global land cover map for 2020 at 10 m resolution based on Sentinel-1 and Sentinel-2 data. The WorldCover project, part of the 5th Earth Observation Envelope Programme (EOEP-5), had the objective to produce, deliver and validate, as fast as possible, a global 10 meter resolution land cover (LC) map of the world within 3 months of the last data acquisition with a minimum of 10 land cover classes and a minimum overall accuracy of 75%.

The WorldCover product comes with 11 land cover classes:

  • Tree cover: This class includes any geographic area dominated by trees with a cover of 10% or more. Areas planted with trees for afforestation purposes and plantations (e.g. oil palm, olive trees) are included in this class. This class also includes tree covered areas seasonally or permanently flooded with fresh water except for mangroves.
  • Shrubland: This class includes any geographic area dominated by natural shrubs having a cover of 10% or more. Shrubs are defined as woody perennial plants with persistent and woody stems and without any defined main stem being less than 5 m tall.
  • Grassland: This class includes any geographic area dominated by natural herbaceous plants (Plants without persistent stem or shoots above ground and lacking definite firm structure): (grasslands, prairies, steppes, savannahs, pastures) with a cover of 10% or more, irrespective of different human and/or animal activities.
  • Cropland: Land covered with annual cropland that is sowed/planted and harvestable at least once within the 12 months after the sowing/planting date.
  • Built-up: Land covered by buildings, roads and other man-made structures such as railroads. Buildings include both residential and industrial building.
  • Bare / sparse vegetation: Lands with exposed soil, sand, or rocks and never has more than 10% vegetated cover during any time of the year.
  • Snow and ice: This class includes any geographic area covered by snow or glaciers persistently.
  • Open water: This class includes any geographic area covered for most of the year (more than 9 months) by water bodies: lakes, reservoirs, and rivers.
  • Herbaceous wetland: Land dominated by natural herbaceous vegetation (cover of 10% or more) that is permanently or regularly flooded by fresh, brackish or salt water.
  • Mangroves: Taxonomically diverse, salt-tolerant tree and other plant species which thrive in intertidal zones of sheltered tropical shores, “overwash” islands, and estuaries.
  • Moss and lichen: Land covered with lichens and/or mosses. Lichens are composite organisms formed from the symbiotic association of fungi and algae. Mosses contain photo-autotrophic land plants without true leaves, stems, roots but with leaf-and stemlike organs.
land cover class land percent year
Trees 74.63 2020
Grassland 19.14 2020
Built-up 4.07 2020
Cropland 0.95 2020
Barren / sparse vegetation 0.87 2020
Open water 0.20 2020
Shrubland 0.14 2020
Herbaceous wetland 0.01 2020

3.1.2 Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF)

3.1.2.1 Metropolitan level

  • Location of reported birds:
  • Number of reported birds by order:
  • Number of reported birds by family:
  • Number of reported birds by genus:
genus name Number of species
Thraupis 58
Momotus 50
Zenaida 44
Zonotrichia 39
Turdus 37
Tyrannus 36
Buteo 35
Piranga 31
Pitangus 30
Quiscalus 27
Melanerpes 26
Setophaga 26
Icterus 25
Piaya 24
Columbina 23
Myiozetetes 23
Aratinga 21
Heliodoxa 21
Patagioenas 20
Psilorhinus 20
Saltator 19
Amazilia 18
Psarocolius 18
Ramphastos 18
Volatinia 17
Campylorhynchus 16
Chlorospingus 15
Vireo 15
Euphonia 14
Ortalis 14
Tangara 13
Brotogeris 12
Dryocopus 12
Leiothlypis 12
Melozone 12
Troglodytes 12
Eupherusa 11
Glaucidium 11
Lampornis 11
Pheucticus 11
Campylopterus 10
Microchera 10
Mimus 10
Myioborus 10
Sayornis 10
Cypseloides 9
Eubucco 9
Ramphocelus 9
Semnornis 9
Aulacorhynchus 8
Basileuterus 8
Columba 8
Contopus 8
Discosura 8
Notiochelidon 8
Pionus 8
Cathartes 7
Catharus 7
Colibri 7
Coragyps 7
Crotophaga 7
Falco 7
Herpetotheres 7
Saucerottia 7
Tityra 7
Zentrygon 7
Archilochus 6
Ardea 6
Cardellina 6
Chamaepetes 6
Dendrocygna 6
Milvago 6
Panterpe 6
Pharomachrus 6
Tiaris 6
Anthracothorax 5
Bubulcus 5
Caracara 5
Cyanerpes 5
Dives 5
Eugenes 5
Heliomaster 5
Lepidocolaptes 5
Megarynchus 5
Mitrephanes 5
Myiodynastes 5
Passerina 5
Phainoptila 5
Arremon 4
Butorides 4
Cantorchilus 4
Chaetura 4
Empidonax 4
Passer 4
Phaethornis 4
Pselliophorus 4
Pseudoscops 4
Spinus 4
Thamnophilus 4
Todirostrum 4
Vermivora 4
Amazona 3
Aramides 3
Cinclus 3
Elaenia 3
Megascops 3
Mniotilta 3
Peucaea 3
Protonotaria 3
Pteroglossus 3
Rupornis 3
Seiurus 3
Selasphorus 3
Trogon 3
Anhinga 2
Arremonops 2
Atlapetes 2
Cairina 2
Calliphlox 2
Chloroceryle 2
Chlorophanes 2
Crax 2
Dendrortyx 2
Diglossa 2
Doryfera 2
Geothlypis 2
Glyphorynchus 2
Jacana 2
Margarornis 2
Micrastur 2
Molothrus 2
Myadestes 2
Pachyramphus 2
Premnoplex 2
Ptilogonys 2
Spizaetus 2
Streptoprocne 2
Tapera 2
Tringa 2
Tryngites 2
Vanellus 2
Acanthidops 1
Accipiter 1
Ammodramus 1
Anas 1
Antrostomus 1
Ara 1
Bartramia 1
Campephilus 1
Charadrius 1
Chiroxiphia 1
Chlorophonia 1
Chondrohierax 1
Cistothorus 1
Coccyzus 1
Cochlearius 1
Coereba 1
Colaptes 1
Cynanthus 1
Dumetella 1
Elanoides 1
Elanus 1
Fulica 1
Gampsonyx 1
Grallaria 1
Grallaricula 1
Habia 1
Hylocichla 1
Junco 1
Legatus 1
Leuconotopicus 1
Lophotriccus 1
Megaceryle 1
Mionectes 1
Morococcyx 1
Mycteria 1
Nomonyx 1
Numida 1
Odontophorus 1
Oxyruncus 1
Pandion 1
Petrochelidon 1
Platyrinchus 1
Pulsatrix 1
Riparia 1
Sclerurus 1
Scytalopus 1
Serpophaga 1
Spiza 1
Sporophila 1
Stelgidopteryx 1
Strix 1
Sturnella 1
Syndactyla 1
Thripadectes 1
Tigrisoma 1
Tolmomyias 1
Tyto 1
Xenops 1
Zeledonia 1
Zimmerius 1

3.1.2.2 Municipality level

3.1.3 World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA)

3.2 Baseline indicators

3.2.1 I-1. Proportion of natural areas

Natural ecosystems contain more species than human-altered landscapes, hence, the higher the percentage of natural areas compared to that of the total city area gives an indication of the amount of biodiversity.

Natural ecosystems are defined as all areas that are natural and not highly disturbed or completely human-altered landscapes. Examples of natural ecosystems include forests, mangroves, freshwater swamps, natural grasslands, streams, lakes, etc. Parks, golf courses, roadside plantings are not considered as natural. However, natural ecosystems within parks where native species are dominant can be included in the computation.

This indicator is calculated as the percent of natural area within the city boundary: (Total area of natural, restored and naturalised areas) ÷ (Area of city) × 100%

Based on the assumption that,by definition, a city comprises predominantly human-altered landscapes, the maximum score will be accorded to cities with natural areas occupying more than 20% of the total city area.

Score Indicator.value
0 POINTS < 1.0%
1 POINTS 1% – 6.9%
2 POINTS 7.0% – 13.9%
3 POINTS 14.0% – 20.0%
4 POINTS > 20.0%
  • Metropolitan level:
City I1_value I1_score
San Jose 74.92 4
  • Municipality level:

3.2.2 I-2. Connectivity measures or ecological networks to counter fragmentation

Fragmentation of natural areas usually occurs due to development of grey or built infrastructure such as roads, residential and commercial buildings, public amenities… It is increasingly being proven that connectivity is a vital element of landscape structure. The fragmentation of natural areas affects different species differently. For example, a road may not be a barrier for birds but it can seriously fragment a population of arboreal primates. While these differences have been considered, a pragmatic approach towards the calculation of a connectivity indicator is applied. It involves a 2 step process: calculating the effective mesh size, followed by coherence that will normalize for the size of the city.

  • Step 1: calculate the effective mesh size (EMS):

\[EMS = \frac{1}{A_{total}}(A^2_{G1}+A^2_{G1}+A^2_{G1}+...+A^2_{Gn})\] Where:

  • \(A_{total}\) is the total area of all natural areas
  • \(A_{G1}\) to \(A_{Gn}\) are the sizes of each group of connected patches of natural area that are distinct from each other
  • \(n\) is the total number of groups of connected patches of natural area.

\(A_{G1}\) to \(A_{Gn}\) may consist of areas that are the sum of two or more smaller patches which are connected. In general, patches are considered as connected if they are less than 100m apart. This equation was derived from Deslauriers et al. (2018).

  • Step 2: calculate the coherence:

\[Coherence = \frac{EffectiveMeshSize}{A_{total}}\]

  • Metropolitan level:
City I2_value I2_score
San Jose 84.19 4
  • Municipality level:

3.2.3 I-3 Native biodiversity in built-up areas (bird species)

This indicator corresponds to the percentage of the number of native bird species in built up areas relative to the total number of native bird species. Built up areas include impermeable surfaces like buildings, roads, drainage channels, etc., and anthropogenic green spaces like roof gardens, roadside planting, golf courses, private gardens, cemeteries, lawns, urban parks, etc.

The scoring is based on the reality that the built-up areas of cities have fewer diversity of natural eco-systems and hence, a lesser number of native bird species would be found in them.

  • Metropolitan level:
City I2_value I2_score
San Jose 84.19 4
  • Municipality level:

3.2.4 I-4-5-6 Change in number of native species

3.2.4.1 Methodology

As the Singapore Index is focusing on biodiversity in cities, it is essential that the native flora and fauna diversity be incorporated as indicators. Three taxonomic groups have been selected to be monitored: native vascular plant species, native bird species, and native arthropod species.

To ensure that these three indicators on species are unbiased against any city based on its geographical location, ecological history, size, land use, etc., it was decided that:

  • All cities and local authorities are requested to list the number of native species of vascular plants, birds, any taxonomic group belonging to arthropods.
  • The indicators will measure the change in number of species over time rather than the absolute number of species as ecosystems in the tropics generally support more species than temperate regions.
  • The first year of application will be taken as the baseline year for the species count. The net change in species numbers (increase in number of species due to re-introduction or restoration efforts minus the number of species that went extinct) will be incorporated in the subsequent calculations of the Singapore Index.

Species accumulation curves:

In ecological studies, the species accumulation curve of a population gives the expected number of observed species or distinct classes as a function of the cumulative effort expended searching for them. Plotting the curve gives a way of estimating the number of additional species that will be discovered with further effort. The simplest type of species accumulation curve is the Collector Curve. This plots the cumulative number of species recorded as a function of sampling effort (i.e. number of individuals collected or cumulative number of samples). At the start of a species survey, the total number of species found typically grows quickly with every unit of effort. After some time, however, effort expended yields more and more species that have already been found earlier in the survey—and the total number of species grows more slowly per unit of effort. A plot of species number vs effort will come to a plateau, and this saturation level is a common estimator for the number of species in an area, as shown in the figure below (source).

We estimated species richness by estimating the saturation level of species-saturation curves using individual observations as our effort unit. The estimated counts are the mean saturation levels of 100 species-saturation curves, each generated by randomizing the order of all 2020 research-grade iNaturalist observations of the Aves, Arthropoda and Tracheophyta species. Only species’ observations with enough data to generate species-saturation curves are considered for estimating species’ richness.

3.2.4.2 I-4 Vascular plants

Vascular plants, also known as Tracheophyta, are plants with vascular tissues, including xylem and phloem responsible for conducting water, minerals, and the products of photosynthesis throughout the plant. As opposed to a non-vascular plant, a vascular plant can grow much larger. The vascular tissue within provides a means of transporting water to great heights, allowing a vascular plant to grow upward to catch the sun.

Vascular plants have been selected as one of the taxonomic groups to monitor as they represent more than 90% of the earth’s vegetation, are ubiquitous and are well researched and documented.

The table below presents the estimated number of vascular plants species in every municipality. Red rows refer to municipalities containing threatened species based the IUCN Red List database.

  • Municipality level:
Municipality Least Concern Near Threatened Vulnerable Endangered Critically Endagered Extinct in the Wild Extinct Data Deficient or Not Evaluated Total species observed Estimated species number
Alajuela 9 0 0 1 0 0 0 24 34 insufficient data
Alajuelita 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 19 22 insufficient data
Alvarado 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 3 insufficient data
Aserri 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 14 17 insufficient data
Atenas 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 12 16 insufficient data
Barva 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 16 insufficient data
Belen 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 10 insufficient data
Cartago 21 0 0 1 0 0 0 42 64 insufficient data
Curridabat 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 22 32 insufficient data
Desamparados 6 0 0 0 1 0 0 26 33 insufficient data
El Cuarco 2 1 1 1 0 0 0 21 26 insufficient data
Escazu 26 0 0 0 0 0 0 81 107 insufficient data
Flores 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 insufficient data
Goicoechea 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 14 19 insufficient data
Heredia 6 0 2 0 0 0 0 37 45 insufficient data
La Union 8 0 1 0 0 0 0 20 29 insufficient data
Montes de Oca 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 16 24 insufficient data
Mora 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 11 insufficient data
Moravia 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 14 16 insufficient data
Oreamuno 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 7 10 insufficient data
Paraiso 36 1 1 1 0 0 0 132 171 insufficient data
Poas 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 6 9 insufficient data
San Isidro 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 19 30 insufficient data
San Jose 15 0 1 1 0 0 0 57 74 insufficient data
San Pablo 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 8 insufficient data
San Rafael 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 14 insufficient data
Santa Ana 7 1 0 0 0 0 0 18 26 insufficient data
Santa Barbara 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 4 insufficient data
Santo Domingo 24 0 0 0 0 0 0 70 94 insufficient data
Tibas 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 insufficient data
Vasquez de Coronado 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 16 20 insufficient data

3.2.4.3 I-5 Birds

Birds are one of the most visible species groups in urban areas. They are often considered as a key indicator of environmental quality. Number of birds is selected as part of the Biodiversity Index since they are watched and well-studied by academics as well as amateur naturalists worldwide, they are sensitive to environmental and habitat changes and they are comparatively easy to observe and count.

The table below presents the estimated number of birds observed in every municipality. Red rows refer to municipalities containing threatened species based the IUCN Red List database.

Municipality Least Concern Near Threatened Vulnerable Endangered Critically Endagered Extinct in the Wild Extinct Data Deficient or Not Evaluated Total species observed Estimated species number
Alajuela 366 15 4 0 0 0 0 0 385 140
Alajuelita 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 10 11
Alvarado 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 insufficient data
Aserri 3 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 5 insufficient data
Atenas 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 insufficient data
Barva 76 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 82 157
Belen 120 4 3 0 0 0 0 0 127 118
Cartago 23 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 29 92
Curridabat 68 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 72 57
Desamparados 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 insufficient data
El Cuarco 52 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 57 87
Escazu 29 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 31 43
Flores 23 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 24 55
Goicoechea 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 insufficient data
Heredia 96 4 2 0 0 0 0 0 102 91
La Union 36 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 38 44
Montes de Oca 28 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 30 67
Mora 12 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 14 insufficient data
Moravia 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 insufficient data
Oreamuno 17 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 19 39
Paraiso 109 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 115 128
Poas 17 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 17 41
San Isidro 10 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 12
San Jose 65 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 75 53
San Pablo 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 7
San Rafael 44 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 48 92
Santa Ana 16 1 1 0 0 0 0 2 20 51
Santa Barbara 7 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 insufficient data
Santo Domingo 66 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 69 49
Tibas 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 insufficient data
Vasquez de Coronado 11 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 13 32

3.2.4.4 I-6 Arthropods

Arthropods are a dominant component of biodiversity in terrestrial ecosystems, driving important ecosystem processes such as pollination, herbivory or pest-control, and affecting nutrient cycling in direct and indirect ways.

The table below presents the estimated number of arthropods observed in every municipality. Red rows refer to municipalities containing threatened species based the IUCN Red List database.

Municipality Least Concern Near Threatened Vulnerable Endangered Critically Endagered Extinct in the Wild Extinct Data Deficient or Not Evaluated Total species observed Estimated species number
Alajuela 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 45 48 107
Alajuelita 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 3 insufficient data
Alvarado 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 5 insufficient data
Aserri 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 4 insufficient data
Atenas 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 42 44 250
Barva 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 12 12 42
Belen 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 14 14 insufficient data
Cartago 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 16 17 60
Curridabat 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 43 44 123
Desamparados 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 17 17 64
El Cuarco 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 4 insufficient data
Escazu 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 45 46 242
Flores 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 4 insufficient data
Goicoechea 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 12 14 86
Heredia 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 45 46 203
La Union 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 23 25 110
Montes de Oca 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 17 18 71
Mora 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 54 54 224
Moravia 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 32 33 112
Oreamuno 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 9 insufficient data
Paraiso 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 71 77 276
Poas 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 18 18 93
San Isidro 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 22 23 68
San Jose 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 40 43 105
San Pablo 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 4 insufficient data
San Rafael 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 11 34
Santa Ana 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 14 15 57
Santa Barbara 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 11 insufficient data
Santo Domingo 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 48 51 84
Tibas 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 3 4
Vasquez de Coronado 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 14 15 insufficient data

3.2.5 I-7 Habitat restoration

3.2.6 I-8 Proportion of protected natural areas

Protected or secured natural areas indicate the city’s commitment to biodiversity conservation. Hence, the proportion of protected or secured natural areas is an important indicator. The indicator using the following formula: Area of protected or secured natural areas) ÷ (Total area of the city) × 100%

  • Metropolitan level:
City I8_value I8_score
San Jose 25.25 4
  • Municipality level:

3.2.7 I-9 Proportion of invasive alien species

3.2.8 I-10 Regulation of quantity of water

Impervious areas alter the hydrologic cycle in cities, affecting both water quality and quantity. In addition, climate change is in many places predicted to result in increased variability in precipitation which in urban landscapes may translate into high peaks in water flow and damage to construction, business and transport, as well as lower ecological quality of receiving waters. Vegetation has a significant effect in reducing the rate of flow of water through the urban landscape, e.g., through presence of forest, parks, lawns, roadside greenery, streams, rivers, waterbodies, etc.

This indicator is calculated by measuring the proportion of all permeable areas to total terrestrial area of city: Total permeable area) ÷ (Total terrestrial area of the city) × 100%

  • Metropolitan level:
City I10_value I10_score
San Jose 73.75 4
  • Municipality level:

3.2.9 I-11 Climate regulation: carbon storage and cooling effect of vegetation

3.2.10 I-12 Recreational services

It has been increasingly recognized that urban green parks, nature conservation areas and other green spaces with a high quality of biological diversity provide invaluable recreational, spiritual, cultural and educational services. They are essential for human physical and psychological health.

The recreational services indicator is calculated as the total areas of parks, nature conservation areas and other green spaces with natural areas and protected or secured accessible natural areas by 1000 persons.

  • Metropolitan level:
City I12_value I12_score
San Jose 196.59 4
  • Municipality level:

3.2.11 I-13 Proximity to parks

Proximity is measured in terms of the proportion of the households living within 400m from a park or green space. Straight line distances are used to determine whether households fall within 400m from a park or green space. This inidcator is calculated as following: (Population of city living within 400m from a park/green space) ÷ (Total population of city) × 100%.

  • Metropolitan level:
City I13_value I13_score
San Jose 63.96 2
  • Municipality level:

3.3 Biodiversity index synthesis

The Singapore biodiversity Index is computed as the sum of the different biodiversity indicators:

\[BiodiversityIndex_{city} = \sum_{i=1}^{nb_{indicators}} (I1_{city},I2_{city},...,In_{city})\]

Municipality I1 - Percent of natural areas I2 - Connectivity I3 - Birds in built areas I8 - Protected areas I10 - Water I12 - Recreational services I13 - Proximity to parks Biodiversity Index
San Jose 4 0 4 0 0 0 4 12
Alajuela 4 4 4 2 4 0 2 20
Moravia 4 4 4 3 4 0 4 23
Paraiso 4 4 3 4 4 4 1 24
Poas 4 4 0 3 4 2 0 17
Mora 4 4 0 4 4 4 0 20
Alvarado 4 4 0 3 4 4 0 19
Oreamuno 4 4 4 4 4 0 0 20
Heredia 4 4 4 4 4 1 4 25
Tibas 2 3 4 0 0 0 4 13
Vasquez de Coronado 4 4 3 4 4 0 4 23
Atenas 4 4 0 3 4 0 0 15
Desamparados 4 4 3 1 4 0 3 19
Aserri 4 4 0 3 4 1 1 17
Santo Domingo 4 3 4 0 4 0 3 18
El Cuarco 4 4 0 4 4 0 1 17
Montes de Oca 4 3 4 0 2 0 4 17
Goicoechea 4 4 4 2 4 0 4 22
Cartago 4 4 4 4 4 0 2 22
San Pablo 4 2 4 0 2 1 4 17
Curridabat 4 1 4 1 1 0 4 15
Alajuelita 4 4 4 4 4 0 2 22
Barva 4 4 4 4 4 1 2 23
Belen 4 1 4 0 1 0 3 13
Escazu 4 4 4 4 4 2 2 24
Flores 4 3 4 0 0 0 2 13
La Union 4 4 0 4 4 0 3 19
San Isidro 4 4 4 2 4 1 2 21
San Rafael 4 4 4 3 4 0 2 21
Santa Ana 4 4 4 4 4 1 1 22
Santa Barbara 4 4 4 4 4 1 1 22